Earth Resources and Environmental Impacts
[Book Description]
Earth Resources and Environmental Impacts uses everyday examples and current issues to help readers understand how mineral, water and energy resources and the impacts of their use and extraction affect their daily lives. A historical perspective makes the material in this text fascinating by showing readers that the earth s resources have always been fundamental to society, even as far back as the Stone Age. Environmental impacts and sustainable use of energy and mineral resources are emphasized. With the increase of public interest surrounding environmental impacts, readers will appreciate the knowledge gained from this text.
[Table of Contents]
Preface vii
Part 1 Earth Systems and Earth Materials
1 Introduction 2 (29)
Introduction 2 (1)
Units 2 (1)
Scope of the Challenges We Face 3 (4)
Box 1.1 Carbon Dioxide Projections 6 (1)
Energy Consumption 7 (2)
Is the World Running Out of Oil? 8 (1)
Mineral Resources 9 (6)
Long-Term Price of Minerals 13 (2)
Water Resources 15 (1)
Resources versus Reserves 15 (2)
Population Dynamics 17 (3)
Sustainability 20 (1)
Law of Supply and Demand 21 (1)
Failure of the Law of Supply and Demand 22 (1)
How Much Is the Environment Worth? 22 (1)
Reduce and Recycle 23 (5)
Conservation 23 (1)
Recycling Metals 24 (4)
Impact of China on World Resources 28 (1)
Box 1.2 Welcome to the Anthropocene 29 (1)
Summary 29 (1)
Key Terms 30 (1)
Sources 30 (1)
Books and Articles 30 (1)
Websites 30 (1)
2 Earth-System Science 31 (32)
Introduction 31 (4)
Box 2.1 Alexander von Humboldt 33 (2)
The Solid Earth 35 (5)
Core and Mantle 35 (1)
The Lithosphere 36 (2)
The Crust 38 (2)
The Hydrosphere (Oceans) 40 (5)
Box 2.2 Who Owns the Oceans' Resources? 43 (2)
The Cryosphere 45 (4)
Box 2.3 Global Sea Level Rise Due to 48 (1)
Greenland Ice Melting
Permafrost 48 (1)
The Atmosphere 49 (3)
Box 2.4 What Is the Mass of the 52 (1)
Atmosphere?
The Biosphere 52 (2)
Interaction Between Earth's Spheres 54 (3)
The Carbon Cycle 55 (2)
Energy Resources 57 (4)
Units of Energy 57 (1)
Earth's Energy Spheres 58 (3)
Box 2.5 The Geologic Time Scale 59 (2)
Summary 61 (1)
Key Terms 61 (1)
Sources 61 (2)
Books and Articles 61 (1)
Websites 62 (1)
3 Earth Materials I-Minerals 63 (35)
Introduction 63 (1)
Atoms 63 (4)
Isotopes 65 (16)
Box 3.1 The Age of the Earth 66 (1)
Periodic Table of Elements 67 (1)
Chemical Bonding 67 (5)
The Structure of Minerals 72 (3)
Mineral Properties 75 (3)
Native Elements 78 (3)
Ore-Forming Minerals 81 (6)
Sulfides 81 (2)
Carbonates 83 (1)
Oxides 84 (4)
Box 3.2 Arsenic in the Environment 85 (2)
Halides 87 (1)
Sulfates 87 (1)
Silicate Minerals 88 (5)
Olivines 90 (1)
Pyroxenes 91 (1)
Micas 91 (2)
Framework Silicates 93 (4)
Quartz 93 (1)
Feldspars 94 (3)
Summary 97 (1)
Key Terms 97 (1)
Sources 97 (1)
Books and Articles 97 (1)
Websites 97 (1)
4 Earth Materials II-Igneous, Sedimentary, 98 (34)
and Metamorphic Rocks
Introduction 98 (1)
Igneous Rocks 99 (10)
Classification of Igneous Rocks 100(4)
Origin of Mafic and Felsic Magma Types 104(3)
Occurrence of Intrusive Igneous Rocks 107(2)
Igneous Activity and Plate Tectonics 109(1)
Sedimentary Rocks 109(12)
Box 4.1 The Triangular Plot 113(1)
Clastic Sediments 114(4)
Limestones 118(3)
Metamorphic Rocks 121(5)
Metamorphism of Shale 122(2)
Types of Metamorphism 124(1)
Deformation and Metamorphism 125(1)
The Rock Cycle 126(3)
Summary 129(1)
Key Terms 129(1)
Sources 130(2)
Books and Articles 130(1)
Websites 130(2)
Part 2 Mineral Resources
5 Ore Deposits and Mineral Exploration 132(35)
Introduction 132(1)
Historical Background 133(4)
Copper Age 134(1)
Bronze Age 134(1)
Iron Age 135(1)
Roman Iron Age 136(1)
Industrial Revolution 136(1)
Geology of Ore Deposits 137(6)
Ore-Forming Processes 138(4)
Box 5.1 Fluid Inclusions 141(1)
Classification of Selected Igneous, 142(1)
Sedimentary, and Surficial Ore Deposits
Ore Deposit Mineral Models 143(11)
1 Layered Mafic-Ultramafic Intrusions 143(1)
2 Carbonatite Alkaline Intrusions: Rare 143(1)
Earth Elements
3 Copper Porphyry Felsic Intrusions 144(1)
4 Complex Pegmatites 145(1)
5 Massive Sulfides-Cyprus Type (Ophiolite) 146(1)
6 Cu-Zn Felsic Volcanic Deposits 147(1)
7 Uranium Clastic Sedimentary Deposits 147(1)
8 Mississippi Valley Carbonate Pb-Zn 148(3)
Deposits
9 Banded-Iron Formations 151(1)
10 Aluminum Ore-Bauxite Deposits 151(1)
11 Placer Deposits (Gold, Diamonds, and 152(1)
Heavy Minerals)
12 Tin Vein Deposits (Cornwall Type) 152(1)
13 Mercury Deposits (Almaden Type) 153(1)
14 Nickel Laterite Deposits 154(1)
Mineral Prospecting Methods 154(7)
Geological Prospecting 154(1)
Geochem foal Prospecting 155(1)
Geophysical Prospecting 155(6)
Factors That Affect Metal Prices 161(4)
Box 5.2 Mineral Resources of Afghanistan 162(3)
Summary 165(1)
Key Terms 165(1)
Sources 166(1)
Books and Articles 166(1)
Websites 166(1)
6 Abundant and Scarce Metal Resources 167(44)
Introduction 167(1)
Abundant Metals 168(10)
Aluminum 169(4)
Iron 173(2)
Magnesium 175(1)
Titanium 176(2)
Scarce Metals 178(18)
Base Metals 179(8)
Ferroalloys (Iron Alloys) 187(9)
Box 6.1 Strength of Alloys 189(7)
Precious Metals 196(8)
Gold 196(5)
Silver 201(3)
Platinum Group Metals (PGM) 204(1)
Rare Earth Elements (REE) 205(2)
Other Metals-Lightest and Heaviest 207(2)
Lithium 207(1)
Uranium 208(1)
Summary 209(1)
Key Terms 210(1)
Sources 210(1)
Books and Articles 210(1)
Websites 210(1)
7 Nonmetals and Industrial Minerals 211(37)
Introduction 211(1)
Fertilizer: Historical Background 212(1)
Major Constituents of Fertilizer 213(9)
Nitrogen 214(3)
Phosphorus 217(1)
Potassium 217(2)
Sulfur 219(3)
Gypsum (CaSO4 ｷ 2H2O) 222(2)
Barite (BaSO4) 224(1)
Diamond 225(5)
Gem-Quality Diamonds 225(1)
Uses and Production 225(2)
Industrial Diamonds 227(1)
Geologic Occurrence of Diamond 227(3)
Silicon 230(2)
Silicon Glass 231(1)
Aggregates 232(9)
Sand and Gravel for Construction 233(2)
Crushed Stone 235(4)
Cement 239(2)
Dimension Stone 241(5)
Box 7.1 Building Stones of Washington, 243(3)
D.C.
Summary 246(1)
Key Terms 247(1)
Sources 247(1)
Books and Articles 247(1)
Websites 247(1)
8 Environmental Impacts of Metal Resources 248(26)
Introduction 248(5)
The Mining Cycle 249(1)
Exploration 249(1)
Extraction 249(2)
Beneficiation (Ore Processing) 251(2)
Smelting 253(1)
Mine Closure 253(1)
Environmental Impacts of the Mining Cycle 253(15)
Change in Landforms 254(1)
Waste Streams 254(5)
Box 8.1 A Measure of Acidity (pH) 259(1)
Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) 259(2)
Leaching 261(4)
Smelting 265(3)
Biodiversity and Habitats 268(1)
Artisanal Mining 268(1)
Deep-Sea Mining 269(1)
What Is Sustainable Mining? 270(1)
Summary 271(1)
Key Terms 272(1)
Sources 272(2)
Books and Articles 272(1)
Websites 272(2)
Part 3 Energy Resources
9 Energy Perspectives 274(19)
Introduction 274(1)
Energy Use Over Time 274(6)
Box 9.1 Price of Electricity 278(2)
Energy and Power 280(2)
The Kilowatt-Hour 281(1)
Types of Energy 282(3)
Potential Energy 283(1)
Kinetic Energy 283(1)
Chemical Energy 283(1)
Geothermal Energy 283(4)
Box 9.2 Combustion of Gasoline 284(1)
Box 9.3 Geothermal Heat Flow 285(1)
Energy Efficiency 285(2)
Energy Density and Power Density 287(5)
Energy Density 287(1)
Power Density 287(2)
Solar Power Density 289(1)
Biofuel Power 289(3)
Box 9.4 The Pickens Energy Plan 290(2)
Summary 292(1)
Key Terms 292(1)
Sources 292(1)
Books and Articles 292(1)
Websites 292(1)
10 Carbon-Based Energy Resources 293(53)
Introduction 293(1)
History of Petroleum 294(5)
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting 297(2)
Countries (OPEC)
The Chemistry of Petroleum 299(4)
Natural Gas 300(2)
Box 10.1 Units and Conversion Factors 301(1)
Crude Oil 302(1)
Production, Transmission, and Distribution 303(5)
of Natural Gas
Production and Consumption of Crude Oil 308(4)
Refining Crude Oil 312(2)
Origin of Petroleum 314(6)
Petroleum Migration and the Source Rock 316(1)
Petroleum Traps 317(3)
Plate Tectonic Setting of Petroleum Deposits 320(7)
Divergent Plate Boundaries and 320(2)
Continental Rifting
Passive Margin Development 322(1)
Collisional Plate Boundaries 322(1)
Fore-Arc and Back-Arc Basins 323(1)
Foreland Basins 323(1)
Tectonic Setting of Giant Oil and Gas 323(4)
Fields
Box 10.2 The Strategic Petroleum Reserve 327(1)
Coal as a Fossil Fuel 327
Sedimentary Environment 328(1)
Age and World Distribution of Coal 329(1)
Coal Maturation and Rank 330(1)
Box 10.3 Vitrinite Reflectance 331(1)
Temperature
Composition of Coal 331(1)
Coal Reserves, Production, and Imports 332
Unconventional Fuels 324(20)
Biofuels 334(2)
Box 10.4 The Future of Agal Biofuel 335(1)
Coaled Methane (CBM) 336(1)
Shale Gas 337(3)
Tars Sands 340(3)
Gas Hydrates 343(1)
Summary 344(1)
Key Terms 345(1)
Sources 345(1)
Books and Articles 345(1)
Websites 345(1)
11 Environmental Impacts of Carbon-Based 346(1)
Energy
Introduction 346(1)
Global Climate Change 347(2)
Greenhouse Gases 349(6)
Carbon Dioxide 350(4)
Box 11.1 CO2 Increase in the Atmosphere 352(2)
Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage 354(1)
Methane 355(1)
Environmental Effects of Oil Spills 355(11)
Petroleum Toxicity 355(2)
Three Major Oil Spills 357(7)
Where the Oil Went 364(1)
Effects on the Local Economy 365(1)
Environmental Effects of Coal Mining and Use 366(6)
Coal Mining 367(3)
Acid Rain 370(2)
Trace Elements in Coal 372(5)
Combusted Waste Disposal (Coal Ash) 374(8)
Box 11.2 Trace Element Concentrations 376(1)
in the Kingston Ash Spill
Shale Gas 377(1)
Biofuels 378(1)
Canadian Tar Sands 379(2)
Summary 381(1)
Key Terms 381(1)
Sources 382(1)
Books and Articles 382(1)
Websites 382(1)
12 Noncarbon-Based Energy Resources 383(47)
Introduction 383(1)
Nuclear Energy 384(11)
Stability of the Atomic Nucleus 384(3)
Nuclear Fission Reactions 387(2)
Box 12.1 Binding Energy of Uranium 388(1)
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle 389(6)
Geothermal Energy 395(9)
Heat Flow 398(2)
Geothermal Environments 400(1)
Geothermal Power Plants 401(3)
Wind Energy 404(7)
Wind Power 406(2)
Box 12.2 The Power of a Wind Turbine 407(1)
Modern Wind Turbine 408(1)
Where the Wind Is 408(3)
Solar Energy 411(9)
Passive Solar Heating 413(1)
Photovoltaic Cells 414(2)
Concentrated Solar Power 416(4)
Hydroelectric Power 420(6)
Hydroelectric Dam 422(3)
Box 12.3 Hydroelectric Turbine Power 423(2)
Pumped Storage 425(1)
Tidal and Ocean Current Energy 426(1)
Summary 427(1)
Key Terms 428(1)
Sources 428(2)
Books and Articles 428(1)
Websites 429(1)
13 Environmental Impacts of Noncarbon-Based 430(34)
Energy
Introduction 430(1)
Nuclear Energy 430(6)
Radiation 430(1)
Radioactivity 431(3)
Box 13.1 Radon Gas in the Home 432(2)
Units of Radioactivity and Radiation Dose 434(1)
Biological Effects of Radiation 435(1)
Nuclear Waste Disposal 436(8)
Geologic Repositories 437(7)
Nuclear Accidents 444(8)
Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, 1979 444(2)
Chernobyl, Former Soviet Union, 1986 446(4)
Fukushima, Japan, 2011 450(1)
The Future of Nuclear Energy 451(1)
Geothermal Energy 452(1)
Hydroelectric Dams 453(4)
Wind Energy 457(1)
Solar Energy 458(2)
Summary 460(1)
Key Terms 460(1)
Sources 461(3)
Books and Articles 461(1)
Websites 461(3)
Part 4 Freshwater Resources
14 Water Resources 464(42)
Introduction 464(1)
Properties of Water 465(2)
Box 14.1 An Estimate of Sea Level Rise 467(1)
Due to a 0.1ｰC Increase in the
Temperature of the Oceans
The Hydrologic Cycle 467(3)
Drainage Basins 470(4)
Groundwater 474(4)
Artesian Wells 476(1)
Darcy's Law 477(2)
Box 14.2 Flow in a Sand Aquifer 478(1)
Desalination 478(1)
Freshwater Usage 479(5)
Groundwater versus Surface Water 482(2)
International Drainage Basins and Water 484(9)
Resources
The Middle East 485(5)
Groundwater and the Israeli-Palestinian 490(3)
Conflict
Box 14.3 UN International Watercourse 492(1)
Convention of 1997
Water Scarcity 493(1)
Water Conservation 493(1)
China's Water Scarcity 494(4)
The Yellow River Basin 494(2)
The South-North Water Diversion Project 496(2)
Sustainable Hydrological Systems 498(6)
The Murray-Darling Basin, Australia 498(6)
Summary 504(1)
Key Terms 505(1)
Sources 505(1)
Books and Articles 505(1)
Websites 505(1)
15 Environmental Impacts on Water Resources 506(23)
Introduction 506(1)
Climate Change and a Faster Water Cycle 506(6)
Box 15.1 The Poisson Distribution 508(4)
Water Quality in the United States 512(16)
Pollution Sources, Pathways, and Emissions 512(3)
Rivers and Streams 515(1)
Lakes 516(2)
Bays and Estuaries 518(1)
Wetlands 518(2)
Box 15.2 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands 519(1)
Great Lakes Coastline 520(1)
Coastal Shorelines 521(1)
Near Shore Ocean Water 521(2)
Groundwater 523(5)
Summary 528(1)
Key Terms 528(1)
Sources 528(1)
Books and Articles 528(1)
Websites 528(1)
Index 529
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