This comprehensive book approaches sustainability from two directions, the reduction of pollution and the maintaining of existing resources, both of which are addressed in a thorough examination of the main chemical processes and their impact. Divided into five sections, each introduced by a leading expert in the field, the book takes the reader through the various types of chemical processes, demonstrating how we must find ways to lower the environmental cost (of both pollution and contributions to climate change) of producing chemicals. Each section consists of several chapters, presenting the latest facts and opinion on the methodologies being adopted by the chemical industry to provide a more sustainable future. A follow-up to Materials for a Sustainable Future (Royal Society of Chemistry 2012), this book will appeal to the same broad readership - industrialists and investors; policy makers in local and central governments; students, teachers, scientists and engineers working in the field; and finally editors, journalists and the general public who need information on the increasingly popular concepts of sustainable living.
About the Editors xxiii
Introduction
Chapter 1 General Concepts in Sustainable 3 (18)
Chemical Processes
Darrell Alec Patterson
Janet L. Scott
1.1 What is a Sustainable Chemical 3 (3)
Process?
1.2 The Principles of Green Chemistry and 6 (3)
Green Engineering
1.2.1 The Twelve Principles of Green 6 (2)
Chemistry
1.2.2 The Twelve Principles of Green 8 (1)
Engineering
1.3 The Waste Management Hierarchy for 9 (2)
Process Selection
1.4 Taking a Life Cycle Approach 11 (2)
1.5 Common Process Approaches to Increase 13 (2)
Sustainability
1.5.1 Replacing Batch with Continuous 13 (2)
or Flow Processes
1.5.2 Process Intensification 15 (1)
1.6 Outline of the Approach taken in the 15 (1)
Following Chapters
References 16 (5)
Part A:
Chemical Transformations
Chapter 2 Overview: Chemical Transformations 21 (7)
Janet L. Scott
2.1 Introduction 21 (2)
2.2 Processes to Facilitate Chemical 23 (2)
Transformation
2.3 Examples of Chemical 25 (1)
Transformations and Processes
References 26 (2)
Chapter 3 Analysis and Optimisation of 28 (21)
Continuous Processes
Nicholas Holmes
Richard A. Bourne
3.1 Introduction to Continuous 28 (1)
Processing with On-line Analysis
3.2 Spectroscopic Methods 29 (1)
3.2.1 Infrared Spectroscopy 29 (1)
3.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 31 (1)
Spectroscopy
3.2.3 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy 33 (1)
3.2.4 Raman Spectroscopy 33 (1)
3.2.5 Near Infrared Spectroscopy 33 (1)
3.3 Chromatographic Methods 34 (1)
3.3.1 Gas Chromatography 35 (1)
3.3.2 High-Performance Liquid 36 (1)
Chromatography
3.4 Mass Spectrometry 37 (1)
3.5 Automated Optimisation using 38 (1)
Continuous Systems
3.5.1 Self-Optimisation 38 (1)
3.5.2 Statistical and Kinetic Modelling 41 (1)
3.6 Conclusions and Future Directions 42 (1)
References 43 (6)
Processes to Facilitate Chemical
Transformations
Chapter 4 Sustainable Heterogeneous 49 (35)
Catalytic Reactions for the Fine and Pharma
Industry
Felicity Roberts
Klaus Hellgardt
4.1 Sustainable Processes 49 (1)
4.2 Sustainable Reaction Engineering 50 (2)
4.3 Intensified Catalytic Reactors 52 (2)
4.4 A More Sustainable Fine and 54 (1)
Pharmaceutical Industry
4.4.1 Challenges Faced by the Fine and 54 (1)
Pharmaceutical Industry
4.4.2 Amide Formation, Avoiding Poor 58 (1)
Atom Economy Reagents
4.4.3 OH Activation for Nucleophilic 65 (1)
Substitution
4.4.4 Reduction of Amides to Amines 68 (1)
4.4.5 Oxidation/epoxidation reactions 70 (7)
without the use of chlorinated solvents
4.5 Conclusions 77 (1)
References 78 (6)
Chapter 5 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Processing 84 (59)
Frederick C. Michel Jr
Oleg Kozyuk
5.1 Introduction 84 (2)
5.2 Principles of Hydrodynamic 86 (2)
Cavitation Processes
5.3 Specific Energy Use during 88 (3)
Cavitation
5.4 Mechanisms of Comminution and 91 (4)
Effects on Chemical Reaction in the
Cavitation Bubble Zone
5.5 Homogenization and Emulsification 95 (7)
Processes
5.6 Particle Size 102 (5)
Reduction/De-agglomeration
5.7 Cavitation Synthesis of 107 (12)
Nanostructured Materials and Catalysts
5.8 Hydrodynamic Cavitation as a Tool 119 (12)
to Control Properties of Active
Pharmaceutical Ingredients
5.9 Applications of Hydrodynamic 131 (1)
Cavitation in Bioprocessing
5.9.1 Use of Cavitation to Improve Corn 131 (1)
Ethanol Production
5.9.2 Use of Cavitation to Reduce 134 (1)
Particle Size Distribution during
Anaerobic Digestion of Wastewater
Treatment Plant Primary and Secondary
Sludge
5.9.3 Continuous Biodiesel Production 136 (3)
using Controlled Flow Cavitation
5.10 Hydrodynamic Cavitation, a Process 139 (1)
Tool for a Sustainable Future
References 139 (4)
Chapter 6 Microwave Chemistry 143 (15)
Yvonne Wharton
6.1 Introduction 143 (2)
6.2 Microwave Assisted Organic Reactions 145 (1)
6.3 Large-scale Microwave Synthesis as 146 (1)
a Tool for Sustainable Chemistry
6.3.1 Scale Up of Microwave Synthesis 146 (1)
6.3.2 Scale Up Using Flow Chemistry 147 (1)
6.4 Microwave Assisted Synthesis Under 148 (1)
Continuous Flow Conditions
6.5 Case Studies 149 (1)
6.5.1 Parallel Synthesis 151 (1)
6.5.2 Transition Metal Free Suzuki and 152 (1)
Sonogashira Coupling Reactions
6.5.3 Multi-component Reactions 152 (1)
6.5.4 Comparison of Energy Consumption 153 (2)
in a Benzamide Hydrolysis
6.6 Conclusions 155 (1)
References 155 (3)
Chapter 7 Solar Photochemical Manufacturing 158 (37)
of Fine Chemicals: Historical Background,
Modem Solar Technologies, Recent
Applications and Future Challenges
Saira Mumtaz
Christian Sattler
Michael Oelgem?ller
7.1 Introduction to Synthetic Organic 158 (4)
Photochemistry
7.2 Early History of Solar 162 (1)
Photochemistry
7.3 Solar Technology 163 (1)
7.3.1 Non-Concentrating Reactors 164 (1)
7.3.2 Compound Parabolic Collectors 164 (1)
(CPC)
7.3.3 Concentrating Reactors 165 (4)
7.4 Solar Photochemical Production of 169 (1)
Fine Chemicals
7.4.1 Solar Reactions in Non- to 169 (1)
Low-concentrating Reactors
7.4.2 Solar Reactions in 172 (1)
Moderately-Concentrating Reactors
7.4.3 Solar Reactions in 178 (1)
Highly-Concentrating Reactors
7.4.4 Solar Reactor Comparison Studies 181 (3)
7.5 Summary, Conclusion and Outlook 184 (2)
Acknowledgements 186 (1)
References 187 (8)
Examples of Chemical Transformations and
Processes
Chapter 8 The Sustainable Synthesis of 195 (64)
Methanol - Renewable! Energy, Carbon
Dioxide and an Anthropogenic Carbon Cycle
Robin J. White
8.1 Introduction 195 (3)
8.2 The Hydrogen Economy: Sources and 198 (5)
Limitations
8.3 Renewable Electricity Provision: 203 (3)
The Challenge of Intermittency and
Northern European Ambitions
8.4 A Methanol-based Economy and a 206 (5)
Viable Hydrogen Energy Carrier?
8.5 Methanol Synthesis 211 (1)
8.5.1 Synthesis of Dimethyl Ether 214 (1)
8.5.2 Synthesis of Associated 215 (2)
Hydrocarbons: Accessing Higher Fuels
from Methanol
8.6 Carbon Dioxide Capture, 217 (3)
Concentration and Purification
8.7 Sustainable Hydrogen and Syn-gas 220 (1)
Production
8.7.1 High Temperature Electrolysis 221 (1)
8.7.2 Fossil Fuel Decarbonisation 224 (1)
8.8 Methane as a Fossil Bridge in the 225 (1)
Methanol Economy
8.8.1 Homogeneous Catalysis 226 (1)
8.8.2 Heterogeneous Catalysis 227 (1)
8.8.3 (Oxidative) Bi-reforming 230 (1)
Approaches
8.9 Methanol as a Hydrogen and Energy 231 (1)
Vector
8.9.1 Catalysts for Dehydrogenation 231 (1)
8.9.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells: 234 (2)
Liquid Electrical Energy Carriers
8.10 Commercial Examples 236 (3)
8.11 Summary and Outlook 239 (4)
References 243 (16)
Chapter 9 Sustainable Nanotechnology: 259 (29)
Preparing Nanomaterials from Benign and
Naturally Occurring Reagents
O.A. Sadik
I. Yazgan
V. Kariuki
9.1 Introduction 259 (1)
9.2 Sustainability and Nanomaterials 260 (1)
9.2.1 Minimally Toxic Quantum Dots 261 (1)
9.2.2 'Green Gold' 263 (1)
9.2.3 'Green Silver' 264 (1)
9.2.4 Green Graphene Nanosheets 265 (1)
9.2.5 Biomass Extracts as Precursor for 265 (1)
the Synthesis of Nanomaterials
9.2.6 Safer-by-Design (SbD) Concept 266 (1)
9.2.7 Microwave Mediated Synthesis of 268 (1)
Nanomaterials
9.2.8 Life Cycle Assessment 269 (1)
9.3 Nanostructured Poly(amic) Acid 270 (1)
Membranes: A Case Study
9.3.1 PAA for Membrane Filtration 272 (1)
9.3.2 Experimental Control of Pore Size 272 (1)
9.3.3 Sustainable by Design using 275 (7)
Chitosan-PAA System
9.4 Conclusions 282 (1)
Acknowledgements 282 (1)
References 283 (5)
Chapter 10 New Chemical Processes aimed at 288 (29)
Sustainable Development in Brazil
Telma Teixeira Franco
Ricardo Baldassin Jr
10.1 Introduction 288 (3)
10.2 A Sustainable Chemical Process 291 (2)
10.3 Sugarcane and other Feedstocks in 293 (8)
Brazil
10.4 Biorefineries 301 (1)
10.4.1 Fast Pyrolysis and Solvent 301 (1)
Liquefaction
10.4.2 Hydrolysis 302 (1)
10.4.3 Fermentation to Alcohols, Lipids 304 (1)
and Organic Acids
10.4.4 Alcohol Chemistry and Polymers 306 (1)
from Bioethanol
10.4.5 Production of Biodegradable 307 (1)
Plastic in Brazil
10.4.6 Production of Amino Acids from 309 (1)
Sugar
10.5 Conclusions and Comments 310 (1)
References 311 (6)
Part B:
Biochemical Transformations and Reactors
Chapter 11 Overview: Biochemical 317 (3)
Transformations and Reactors
David J. Leak
Reference 319 (1)
Chapter 12 Enzyme Biotransfonnations and 320 (27)
Reactors
David J. Leak
Xudong Feng
Emma A.C. Emanuelsson
12.1 Introduction 320 (2)
12.2 Applied Biocatalysis and 322 (1)
Biotransformation
12.3 Features of Enzymes Useful for 323 (1)
Applied Biocatalysis
12.3.1 Enzyme Kinetics 324 (1)
12.3.2 Enzyme Specificity and Competing 325 (1)
Substrates
12.3.3 Reversibility and Equilibrium 326 (1)
12.4 Applications of Biocatalysis 327 (1)
12.4.1 Whole Cell Biocatalysis 327 (1)
12.4.2 Free and Immobilized Enzyme 330 (1)
Biocatalysis
12.4.3 The Co-factor Problem 333 (1)
12.5 Exploiting the Power of Enzyme 334 (2)
Evolution
12.6 Enzyme Immobilization 336 (1)
12.6.1 Immobilization Methods 336 (1)
12.6.2 Enzyme Functional Groups for 338 (1)
Immobilization
12.7 Enzyme Bioreactors 339 (1)
12.7.1 Conventional Enzymatic Reactor 339 (1)
12.7.2 Process Intensification 341 (2)
12.8 Conclusions 343 (1)
References 343 (4)
Chapter 13 Bioelectrochemical Systems 347 (18)
Uwe Schr?der
13.1 Introduction 347 (1)
13.2 A Major Driving Force 348 (1)
13.3 Microbe-Electrode Interactions 349 (1)
13.3.1 Electroactive Biofilms 352 (2)
13.4 Electrodes for Bioelectrochemical 354 (2)
Systems
13.5 Types of Bioelectrochemical Systems 356 (1)
13.5.1 Microbial Fuel Cells 356 (1)
13.5.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cells, 358 (1)
Microbial Desalination Cells and beyond
13.5.3 Microbial Electrosynthesis 360 (1)
References 360 (5)
Chapter 14 Fermentations and Sustainable 365 (23)
Technologies: From Free Enzymes to Whole
Cells, from Fine Chemicals to Bulk
Commodities
Pablo Dominguez de Maria
14.1 Introduction: White Biotechnology 365 (2)
14.2 Use of Isolated Enzymes in 367 (10)
Chemical Processes
14.3 Use of Whole Cells as 377 (5)
Biocatalysts: From Fine Chemicals to
Bulk Commodities
14.4 Beyond: Metabolic Engineering 382 (3)
14.5 Conclusions 385 (1)
References 385 (3)
Chapter 15 Sustainability of Biocatalytic 388 (37)
Processes
Deepika Malhotra
Joyeeta Mukherjee
Munishwar N. Gupta
15.1 Introduction 388 (1)
15.2 Parameters for Measuring 389 (3)
Sustainability
15.3 Choice of Reaction Medium from 392 (2)
Sustainability Perspective
15.4 Biocatalyst Engineering 394 (2)
15.5 Microwave Assisted Biocatalysis 396 (4)
15.6 Ultrasonoenzymology400 (1)
15.7 Exploiting Extremophiles 401 (1)
15.7.1 Thermophiles and Alkalophiles as 401 (1)
Sources of Enzymes
15.7.2 Psychrophiles as a Source of 402 (1)
Enzymes
15.8 Applications of Biocatalysis in 403 (1)
Chemical and Biochemical Processes
15.8.1 Industrial Enzymology and 403 (1)
Enzymes in Organic Synthesis
15.8.2 Biorefineries 407 (1)
15.8.3 Valorization of Waste Products 407 (3)
15.9 Conclusions 410 (1)
Acknowledgements 411 (1)
References 411 (14)
Extractions and Preparations
Chapter 16 Biofuels from Microalgae 425 (18)
Christopher J. Chuck
Jonathan L. Wagner
Rhodri W. Jenkins
16.1 Introduction 425 (1)
16.2 Lipid Derived Algal Fuels 426 (1)
16.2.1 Hydroprocessing of Algal Lipids 427 (1)
16.2.2 Lipid Processing 429 (1)
16.2.3 Economics of Algal Lipid 429 (1)
Production
16.3 Thermochemical Conversion of Whole 430 (1)
Algal Biomass
16.3.1 Pyrolysis 431 (1)
16.3.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 432 (1)
16.3.3 Bio-oil Upgrading 434 (1)
16.3.4 Pre-treatment and Co-product 436 (1)
Extraction
16.3.5 Nutrient Recycling 437 (1)
16.4 Future Research Perspective 438 (1)
References 439 (4)
Chapter 17 Ocean Resources for the 443 (18)
Production of Renewable Chemicals and
Materials
Francesca M. Kerton
17.1 Introduction 443 (2)
17.2 Chemicals and Materials from 445 (1)
Oceanic Biomass
17.2.1 Non-Cellulosic Carbohydrates 445 (1)
17.2.2 Minerals 453 (2)
17.3 Conclusions 455 (1)
References 455 (6)
Part C: Separations and Purifications
Chapter 18 Overview of Separations, 461 (6)
Purifications and Fractionations
Darrell Alec Patterson
18.1 Separations, Purifications and 461 (2)
Fractionations in Chemical Processing
18.2 Overview of Separations in this Book 463 (2)
References 465 (2)
Chapter 19 Membrane Separations: from 467 (36)
Purifications, Minimisation, Reuse and
Recycling to Process Intensification
Darrell Alec Patterson
Christopher John Davey
Rosiah Rohani
19.1 Introduction 467 (2)
19.2 Membrane Separation Basics 469 (13)
19.2.1 Membrane System Definitions 469 (5)
19.2.2 The Different Membrane Processes 474 (1)
19.2.3 Relationships between Driving 475 (3)
Forces and Membrane Processes
19.2.4 Solute and Solvent Transport and 478 (4)
Selectivity Mechanisms
19.3 Overview of Applications of 482 (6)
Membranes in Chemical Processing
19.3.1 Desalination by Reverse Osmosis 482 (1)
19.3.2 High Value Molecule Recovery 483 (1)
19.3.3 Fractionations 484 (1)
19.3.4 Solvent Exchange by Diafiltration 485 (1)
19.3.5 Upgrading of Liquid Streams 486 (1)
19.3.6 Wastewater Treatment 486 (1)
19.3.7 Membrane Enhanced Reactors 487 (1)
19.4 Case Study I: Concentration of 488 (4)
Dilute Organics from Fermentations
19.4.1 Fermentation and the Downstream 488 (1)
Recovery of Organics
19.4.2 Nanofiltration and Reverse 489 (1)
Osmosis Processes
19.4.3 Pervaporative Separation 490 (1)
19.4.4 Membrane Materials for 491 (1)
Fermentative Separations
19.5 Case Study II: Separation of 492 (5)
Incompatible Reaction Systems
19.5.1 The Challenge of Incompatible 492 (1)
Catalysts
19.5.2 Dynamic Kinetic Resolution 493 (1)
19.5.3 Membrane Enhanced Dynamic 494 (3)
Kinetic Resolution
19.6 Conclusions 497 (1)
References 497 (6)
Chapter 20 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 503 (49)
Stephen Talton
Teresa Moreno
20.1 Introduction 503 (5)
20.1.1 Industrial Applications of LLE 505 (2)
20.1.2 Current Trends in LLE 507 (1)
20.2 LLE Fundamentals 508 (25)
20.2.1 Solvent Selection 510 (11)
20.2.2 Contacting 521 (5)
20.2.3 Phase Separation 526 (1)
20.2.4 Solvent and Product Recovery 527 (6)
20.3 Recovery of Organics from Aqueous 533 (9)
Systems
20.3.1 Extraction of Biofuels from 534 (4)
Fermentation Broths
20.3.2 Extraction of Biochemicals from 538 (4)
Fermentation Broths
20.4 Conclusions 542 (1)
References 543 (9)
Chapter 21 Ionic Liquids and their 552 (30)
Application to a More Sustainable Chemistry
Katharina Bica
21.1 Introduction 552 (4)
21.1.1 Ionic Liquids: Facts and Figures 553 (2)
21.1.2 Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 555 (1)
21.2 Ionic Liquids for Biomass Processing 556 (7)
21.2.1 Cellulose Dissolution with Ionic 557 (1)
Liquids
21.2.2 Fractionation of Lignocellulosic 558 (3)
Biomass
21.2.3 Extraction of Valuable 561 (2)
Ingredients from Biomass
21.3 Ionic Liquids as Innovative Fluids 563 (6)
in Catalysis
21.3.1 Liquid Phase Processing 563 (3)
21.3.2 Solid Supported Ionic Liquids: 566 (3)
The SILP Concept
21.4 Separation Processes: From Flue Gas 569 (4)
Cleaning to De-mercurization
21.5 Conclusions 573 (1)
References 574 (8)
Chapter 22 Gas Separations using Ionic Liquids 582 (21)
Leila Moura
Catherine C. Santini
Margarida F. Costa Gomes
22.1 Introduction 582 (6)
22.2 Gas Solubility 588 (2)
22.3 Ethane and Propane Solubility 590 (3)
22.4 Ethylene and Propylene Solubility 593 (3)
22.5 Acetylene and Methyl Acetylene 596 (1)
Solubility
22.6 Selectivity and Performance 597 (2)
22.7 Conclusions 599 (1)
References 600 (3)
Chapter 23 The Application of Supercritical 603 (25)
Carbon Dioxide Extraction of Functional
Compounds
Ray Marriott
23.1 Introduction 603 (2)
23.2 Renewable and Sustainable Sources of 605 (2)
Carbon Dioxide
23.3 Extraction using Liquid and 607 (3)
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
23.3.1 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide 607 (3)
23.4 Extraction of Oleochemicals 610 (2)
23.5 Extraction of Terpenoids 612 (5)
23.6 Extraction of Alkaloids 617 (2)
23.7 Extraction of Metals 619 (3)
23.8 Conclusions 622 (1)
References 622 (6)
Chapter 24 Sustainable Mining, Metals 628 (49)
Processing and Recovery
Justin Salminen
Sami Virolainen
Paivi Kinnunen
Olli Salmi
24.1 Introduction 628 (2)
24.2 Sustainable Mining 630 (11)
24.2.1 Mining Wastes 630 (3)
24.2.2 Water in Mining Operations 633 (2)
24.2.3 Effluent Discharge Regulations 635 (2)
24.2.4 Water Reuse and Recycling 637 (1)
24.2.5 Flotation 637 (4)
24.3 Sustainable Processing 641 (23)
24.3.1 Recovery of Metals from Solutions 641 (2)
24.3.2 Leaching 643 (3)
24.3.3 Precipitation and Cementation 646 (3)
24.3.4 Solvent Extraction 649 (5)
24.3.5 Ion Exchange 654 (7)
24.3.6 Recycling of Metals from 661 (3)
Secondary Raw Materials
24.4 Conclusions 664 (1)
References 665 (12)
Part D: Process Integration
Chapter 25 Process Integration: An Overview 677 (4)
Rafiqul Gani
25.1 Process Integration and 677 (3)
Sustainability
References 680 (1)
Chapter 26 Process Control for Sustainable 681 (17)
Processes with respect to Exergy
M.T. Munir
W. Yu
B.R. Young
26.1 Introduction 681 (1)
26.2 Background 682 (6)
26.2.1 Process Design 682 (1)
26.2.2 Process Control 682 (1)
26.2.3 Sustainability 683 (3)
26.2.4 Integration of Process Design, 686 (2)
Control and Sustainability
26.3 Sustainable Process Control 688 (3)
26.3.1 Relative Exergy Array (REA) 688 (1)
26.3.2 Exergy Eco-efficiency Factor 689 (1)
(EEF)
26.3.3 Relative Exergy Destroyed Array 690 (1)
(REDA)
26.4 Case Study 691 (3)
26.5 Summary 694 (1)
26.6 Conclusions 694 (1)
References 695 (3)
Chapter 27 Systematic Computer Aided 698 (54)
Framework for Process Synthesis, Design and
Intensification
Rafiqul Gani
Deenesh K. Babi
27.1 Introduction 698 (4)
27.2 Concepts for Phenomena-based 702 (4)
Synthesis
27.2.1 Phenomena Building Blocks 703 (1)
27.2.2 From Flow Sheet to Phenomena 703 (1)
Building Blocks
27.2.3 Combination of PBBs to form SPBs 704 (2)
27.3 Process Synthesis-Intensification: 706 (4)
Problem Definition and Mathematical
Solution Approach
27.3.1 Process 706 (1)
Synthesis-Intensification Problem
Definition
27.3.2 Mathematical Description of the 706 (1)
Synthesis-Intensification Problem
27.3.3 Solution Technique 707 (1)
27.3.4 Conceptual Example 708 (2)
27.4 Computer-Aided Framework 710 (13)
27.4.1 The Synthesis-Intensification 710 (7)
Framework
27.4.2 Methods and Tools used in the 717 (6)
Synthesis-Intensification Framework
27.5 Case Study 723 (27)
27.5.1 Step S1: Need Identification 724 (1)
27.5.2 Step S2: Problem and Fobi 724 (1)
Definition
27.5.3 Step S3: Reaction 725 (1)
Identification/ Selection
27.5.4 Step S4: Design Available? 725 (1)
27.5.5 Step S5: Feasibility of Existing 725 (1)
Base Case Design
27.5.6 Step 7: Perform Rigorous 725 (1)
Simulation
27.5.7 Step 8: Economic, Sustainability 726 (2)
and LCA Analysis
27.5.8 IT-PBS 1: Process Analysis 728 (2)
27.5.9 IT-PBS 2: Identification of 730 (2)
Desirable Tasks and PBBs
27.5.10 IT-PBS 3: Generation of 732 (18)
Feasible Flow Sheet Alternatives
27.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 750 (1)
References 750 (2)
Subject Index 752
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