About this title: Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change by Martin Silberberg has become a favorite among faculty and students. Silberberg’ s 4th edition contains features that make it the most comprehensive and relevant text for any student enrolled in General Chemistry. The text contains unprecedented macroscopic to microscopic molecular illustrations, consistent step-by-step worked exercises in every chapter, an extensive range of end-of-chapter problems which provide engaging applications covering a wide variety of freshman interests, including engineering, medicine, materials, and environmental studies. All of these qualities make Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change the centerpiece for any General Chemistry course
Table Of Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

Guided Tour

             Keys to the Study of Chemistry

                    Some Fundamental Definitions

                           The Properties of Matter

                           The Three States of Matter

                           The Central Theme in Chemistry

                           The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter

                    Chemical Arts and the Origins of Modern Chemistry

                           Prechemical Traditions

                           The Phlogiston Fiasco and the Impact of Lavoisier

                    The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model

                    Chemical Problem Solving

                           Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations

                           A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems

                    Measurement in Scientific Study

                           General Features of SI Units

                           Some Important SI Units in Chemistry

                    Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures

                           Determining Which Digits Are Significant

                           Significant Figures in Calculations

                           Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration

                           Chapter Perspective

                           Chemical Connections to Interdisciplinary Science: Chemistry Problem Solving in the Real World

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             The Components of Matter

                    Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview

                    The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter

                           Mass Conservation

                           Definite Composition

                           Multiple Proportions

                    Dalton's Atomic Theory

                           Postulates of the Atomic Theory

                           How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws

                           The Relative Masses of Atoms

                    The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model

                           Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties

                           Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus

                    The Atomic Theory Today

                           Structure of the Atom

                           Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol

                           Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements

                           Tools of the Laboratory: Mass Spectrometry

                           A Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory

                    Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

                    Compounds: Introduction to Bonding

                           The Formation of Ionic Compounds

                           The Formation of Covalent Compounds

                           The Elements of Life

                    Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses

                           Types of Chemical Formulas

                           Some Advice about Learning Names and Formulas

                           Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

                           Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds

                           An Introduction to Naming Organic Compounds

                           Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas

                           Gallery: Picturing Molecules

                    Mixtures: Classification and Separation

                           Tools of the Laboratory: Basic Separation Techniques

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations

                    The Mole

                           Defining the Mole

                           Molar Mass

                           Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities

                           Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula

                    Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound

                           Empirical Formulas

                           Molecular Formulas

                           Chemical Formulas and Molecular Structures

                    Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

                    Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product

                           Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the Balanced Equation

                           Chemical Reactions That Occur in a Sequence

                           Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant

                           Chemical Reactions in Practice: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yields

                    Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry

                           Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity

                           Mole-Mass-Number Conversions Involving Solutions

                           Preparing and Diluting Molar Solutions

                           Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions in Solution

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions

                    The Role of Water as a Solvent

                           The Polar Nature of Water

                           Ionic Compounds in Water

                           Covalent Compounds in Water

                    Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions

                    Precipitation Reactions

                           The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from Dissolved Ions

                           Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form

                    Acid-Base Reactions

                           The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H+ and OH-

                           Acid-Base Titrations

                           Proton Transfer: A Closer Look at Acid-Base Reactions

                    Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

                           The Key Event: Movement of Electrons Between Reactants

                           Some Essential Redox Terminology

                           Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor the Movement of Electron Charge

                           Balancing Redox Equations

                           Redox Titrations

                    Elements in Redox Reactions

                    Reversible Reactions: An Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory

                    An Overview of the Physical States of Matter

                    Gas Pressure and Its Measurement

                           Laboratory Devices for Measuring Gas Pressure

                           Units of Pressure

                    The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations

                           The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: Boyle's Law

                           The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature: Charles's Law

                           The Relationship Between Volume and Amount: Avogadro's Law

                           Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions

                           The Ideal Gas Law

                           Solving Gas Law Problems

                    Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law

                           The Density of a Gas

                           The Molar Mass of a Gas

                           The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture of Gases

                    The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry

                    The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior

                           How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws

                           Effusion and Diffusion

                           The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free Path and Collision Frequency

                           Chemical Connections to Planetary Science: Structure and Composition of Earth's Atmosphere

                    Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior

                           Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior

                           The van der Waals Equation: The Ideal Gas Law Redesigned

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change

                    Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion

                           The System and Its Surroundings

                           Energy Flow to and from a System

                           Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer

                           The Law of Energy Conservation

                           Units of Energy

                           State Functions and the Path Independence of the Energy Change

                    Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change

                           The Meaning of Enthalpy

                           Comparing ΔE and ΔH

                           Exothermic and Endothermic Processes

                           Some Important Types of Enthalpy Change

                    Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction

                           Specific Heat Capacity

                           The Practice of Calorimetry

                    Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations

                    Hess's Law of Heat Summation

                    Standard Heats of Reaction (ΔH rxn)

                           Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy Changes

                           Determining ΔH rxn from ΔH f Values of Reactants and Products

                           Chemical Connections to Environmental Science: The Future of Energy Use

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure

                    The Nature of Light

                           The Wave Nature of Light

                           The Particle Nature of Light

                    Atomic Spectra

                           The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

                           The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom

                           Tools of the Laboratory: Spectrophotometry in Chemical Analysis

                    The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy

                           The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle Nature of Photons

                           The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

                    The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom

                           The Atomic Orbital and the Probable Location of the Electron

                           Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital

                           Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

                           Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity

                    Development of the Periodic Table

                    Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms

                           The Electron-Spin Quantum Number

                           The Exclusion Principle

                           Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting

                    The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table

                           Building Up Periods 1 and 2

                           Building Up Period 3

                           Electron Configurations Within Groups

                           The First d-Orbital Transition Series: Building Up Period 4

                           General Principles of Electron Configurations

                           Unusual Configurations: Transition and Inner Transition Elements

                    Trends in Three Key Atomic Properties

                           Trends in Atomic Size

                           Trends in Ionization Energy

                           Trends in Electron Affinity

                    Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity

                           Trends in Metallic Behavior

                           Properties of Monatomic Ions

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Models of Chemical Bonding

                    Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds

                           The Three Types of Chemical Bonding

                           Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols: Depicting Atoms in Chemical Bonding

                    The Ionic Bonding Model

                           Energy Considerations in Ionic Bonding: The Importance of Lattice Energy

                           Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy

                           How the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds

                    The Covalent Bonding Model

                           The Formation of a Covalent Bond

                           Properties of a Covalent Bond: Bond Energy and Bond Length

                           How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Substances

                           Tools of the Laboratory: Infrared Spectroscopy

                    Bond Energy and Chemical Change

                           Changes in Bond Strength: Where Does ΔH rxn Come From?

                           Using Bond Energies to Calculate ΔH rxn

                           Relative Bond Strengths in Fuels and Foods

                    Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

                           Electronegativity

                           Polar Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity

                           The Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds

                           The Continuum of Bonding Across a Period

                    An Introduction to Metallic Bonding

                           The Electron-Sea Model

                           How the Model Explains the Properties of Metals

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             The Shapes of Molecules

                    Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures

                           Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures

                           Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding

                           Formal Charge: Selecting the More Important Resonance Structure

                           Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule

                    Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory and Molecular Shape

                           Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes

                           The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (Linear Arrangement)

                           Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar Arrangement)

                           Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (Tetrahedral Arrangement)

                           Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal Arrangement)

                           Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (Octahedral Arrangement)

                           Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape

                           Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom

                           Gallery: Molecular Beauty: Odd Shapes With Useful Functions

                    Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity

                           Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole Moment

                           The Effect of Molecular Polarity on Behavior

                           Chapter Perspective

                           Chemical Connections to Sensory Physiology: Molecular Shape, Biological Receptors, and the Sense of Smell

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Theories of Covalent Bonding

                    Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization

                           The Central Themes of VB Theory

                           Types of Hybrid Orbitals

                    The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types of Covalent Bonds

                           Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds

                           Orbital Overlap and Molecular Rotation

                    Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and Electron Delocalization

                           The Central Themes of MO Theory

                           Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of the Period 2 Elements

                           MO Description of Some Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules

                           MO Descriptions of Benzene and Ozone

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes

                    An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes

                    Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes

                           Heat Involved in Phase Changes: A Kinetic-Molecular Approach

                           The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes

                           Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Physical State

                    Types of Intermolecular Forces

                           Ion-Dipole Forces

                           Dipole-Dipole Forces

                           The Hydrogen Bond

                           Polarizability and Charge-Induced Dipole Forces

                           Dispersion (London) Forces

                    Properties of the Liquid State

                           Surface Tension

                           Capillarity

                           Viscosity

                           Gallery: Properties of Liquids

                    The Uniqueness of Water

                           Solvent Properties of Water

                           Thermal Properties of Water

                           Surface Properties of Water

                           The Density of Solid and Liquid Water

                    The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding

                           Structural Features of Solids

                           Tools of the Laboratory: X-Ray Diffraction Analysis and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

                           Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids

                           Amorphous Solids

                           Bonding in Solids: Molecular Orbital Band Theory

                    Advanced Materials

                           Electronic Materials

                           Liquid Crystals

                           Ceramic Materials

                           Polymeric Materials

                           Nanotechnology: Designing Materials Atom by Atom

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids

                    Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Predicting Solubility

                           Intermolecular Forces in Solution

                           Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity

                           Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions

                    Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules

                           The Structure of Proteins

                           The Structure of the Cell Membrane

                           The Structure of DNA

                           The Structure of Cellulose

                    Why Substances Dissolves: Understanding the Solution Process

                           Heats of Solution and Solution Cycles

                           Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids in Water

                           The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy

                    Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

                           Effect of Temperature on Solubility

                           Effect of Pressure on Solubility

                    Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration

                           Molarity and Molality

                           Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution

                           Interconverting Concentration Terms

                    Colligative Properties of Solutions

                           Colligative Properties of Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions

                           Gallery: Colligative Properties in Industry and Biology

                           Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass

                           Colligative Properties of Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions

                           Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions

                    The Structure and Properties of Colloids

                           Chemical Connections to Sanitary Engineering: Solutions and Colloids in Water Purification

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

       INTERCHAPTER A Perspective on the Properties of the Elements

                    Topic 1 The Key Atomic Properties

                    Topic 2 Characteristics of Chemical Bonding

                    Topic 3 Metallic Behavior

                    Topic 4 Acid-Base Behavior of the Element Oxides

                    Topic 5 Redox Behavior of the Elements

                    Topic 6 Physical States and Phase Changes

             Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements

                    Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom

                           Where Does Hydrogen Fit in the Periodic Table?

                           Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry

                    Trends Across the Periodic Table: The Period 2 Elements

                    Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals

                           Why Are the Alkakli Metals Soft, Low Melting, and Lightweight?

                           Why Are the Alkali Metals So Reactive?

                           The Anomalous Behavior of Lithium

                    Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals

                           How Do the Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare?

                           How Do the Chemical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare?

                           The Anomalous Behavior of Beryllium

                           Diagonal Relationships: Lithium and Magnesium

                           Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 1A(1), 2A(2), and 3A(13)

                    Group 3A(13): The Boron Family

                           How Do the Transition Elements Influence Group 3A(13) Properties?

                           What New Features Appear in the Chemical Properties of Group 3A(13)?

                           Highlights of Boron Chemistry

                           Diagonal Relationships: Beryllium and Aluminum

                    Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family

                           How Does the Bonding in an Element Affect Physical Properties?

                           How Does the Type of Bonding Change in Group 4A(14) Compounds?

                           Highlights of Carbon Chemistry

                           Highlights of Silicon Chemistry

                           Diagonal Relationships: Boron and Silicon

                           Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 3A(13), 4A(14), and 5A(15)

                           Gallery: Silicate Minerals and Silicone Polymers

                    Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family

                           What Accounts for the Wide Range of Physical Behavior in Group 5A(15)?

                           What Patterns Appear in the Chemical Behavior of Group 5A(15)?

                           Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry

                           Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids

                    Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family

                           How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Physically?

                           How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Chemically?

                           Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry: Range of Oxide Properties

                           Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry: Oxides, Oxoacids, and Sulfides

                           Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 5A(15), 6A(16), and 7A(17)

                    Group 7A(17): The Halogens

                           What Accounts for the Regular Changes in the Halogens' Physical Properties?

                           Why Are the Halogens So Reactive?

                           Highlights of Halogen Chemistry

                    Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases

                           How Can Noble Gases Form Compounds?

                           Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 7A(17), 8A(18), and 1A(1)

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon

                    The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules

                           The Structural Complexity of Organic Molecules

                           The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules

                    The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons

                           Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins

                           Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds

                           Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical Properties of Alkanes

                           Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism

                           Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds

                           Chemical Connections to Sensory Physiology: Geometric Isomers and the Chemistry of Vision

                           Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds

                           Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules with Delocalized π Electrons

                           Variations on a Theme: Catenated Inorganic Hydrides

                           Tools of the Laboratory: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

                    Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions

                           Types of Organic Reactions

                           The Redox Process in Organic Reactions

                    Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups

                           Functional Groups with Only Single Bonds

                           Functional Groups with Double Bonds

                           Functional Groups with Single and Double Bonds

                           Functional Groups with Triple Bonds

                    The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules

                           Addition Polymers

                           Condensation Polymers

                    The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules

                           Sugars and Polysaccharides

                           Amino Acids and Proteins

                           Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

                           Chapter Perspective

                           Chemical Connections to Genetics: DNA Sequencing and the Human Genome Project

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions

                    Factors That Influence Reaction Rate

                    Expressing the Reaction Rate

                           Average, Instantaneous, and Initial Reaction Rates

                           Expressing Rate in Terms of Reactant and Product Concentrations

                    The Rate Law and Its Components

                           Tools of the Laboratory: Measuring Reaction Rates

                           Determining the Initial Rate

                           Reaction Order Terminology

                           Determining Reaction Orders

                           Determining the Rate Constant

                    Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time

                           Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-Order Reactions

                           Determining the Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law

                           Reaction Half-Life

                    The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate

                    Explaining the Effects of Concentration and Temperature

                           Collision Theory: Basis of the Rate Law

                           Transition State Theory: Molecular Nature of the Activated Complex

                    Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction

                           Elementary Reactions and Molecularity

                           The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism

                           Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law

                    Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction

                           Homogeneous Catalysis

                           Heterogeneous Catalysis

                           Chemical Connections to Enzymology: Kinetics and Function of Biological Catalysts

                           Chemical Connections to Atmospheric Science: Depletion of the Earth's Ozone Layer

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions

                    The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant

                    The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant

                           Writing the Reaction Quotient

                           Variations in the Form of the Reaction Quotient

                    Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp

                    Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K

                    How to Solve Equilibrium Problems

                           Using Quantities to Determine the Equilibrium Constant

                           Using the Equilibrium Constant to Determine Quantities

                           Mixtures of Reactants and Products: Determining Reaction Direction

                    Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State: Le Chatelier's Principle

                           The Effect of a Change in Concentration

                           The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume)

                           The Effect of a Change in Temperature

                           The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst

                           Chemical Connections to Cellular Metabolism: Design and Control of a Metabolic Pathway

                           Chemical Connections to Industrial Production: The Haber Process for the Synthesis of Ammonia

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Acid-Base Equilibria

                    Acids and Bases in Water

                           Release of H+ or OH- and the Classical Acid-Base Definition

                           Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka)

                           Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

                    Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale

                           The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant for Water (Kw)

                           Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale

                    Proton Transfer and the Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition

                           The Conjugate Acid-Base Pair

                           Relative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction of Reaction

                    Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria

                           Finding Ka Given a Concentration

                           Finding Concentration Given Ka

                           The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation

                           The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids

                    Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids

                           Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines

                           Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases

                           The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair

                    Molecular Properties and Acid Strength

                           Trends in Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides

                           Trends in Acid Strength of Oxoacids

                           Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions

                    Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions

                           Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions

                           Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions

                           Salts That Yield Basic Solutions

                           Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions

                    Generalizing the Bronsted-Lowry Concept: The Leveling Effect

                    Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition

                           Molecules as Lewis Acids

                           Metal Cations as Lewis Acids

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems

                    Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems

                           How a Buffer Works: The Common-Ion Effect

                           The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

                           Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range

                           Preparing a Buffer

                    Acid-Base Titration Curves

                           Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators

                           Strong Acid--Strong Base Titration Curves

                           Weak Acid--Strong Base Titration Curves

                           Weak Base-Strong Acid Titration Curves

                           Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids

                           Amino Acids as Biological Polyprotic Acids

                    Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds

                           The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp)

                           Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant

                           The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility

                           The Effect of pH on Solubility

                           Chemical Connections to Geology: Creation of a Limestone Cave

                           Predicting the Formation of a Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp

                           Chemical Connections to Environmental Science: The Acid-Rain Problem

                    Equilibria Involving Complex Ions

                           Formation of Complex Ions

                           Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates

                           Complex Ions of Amphoteric Hydroxides

                    Ionic Equilibria in Chemical Analysis

                           Selective Precipitation

                           Qualitative Analysis: Identifying Ions in Complex Mixtures

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions

                    The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Predicting Spontaneous Change

                           Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics

                           The Sign of ΔH Cannot Predict Spontaneous Change

                           Freedom of Particle Motion and Dispersal of Particle Energy

                           Entropy and the Number of Microstates

                           Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

                           Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law

                    Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction

                           Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy of Reaction (ΔS rxn)

                           Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Part of the Total

                           The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State

                           Chemical Connections to Biology: Do Living Things Obey the Laws of Thermodynamics?

                           Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions: A Summary

                    Entropy, Free Energy, and Work

                           Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity

                           Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes

                           ΔG and the Work a System Can Do

                           The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity

                           Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change

                           Chemical Connections to Biological Energetics: The Universal Role of ATP

                    Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work

                    Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells

                           A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts

                           Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions

                           An Overview of Electrochemical Cells

                    Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy

                           Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell

                           Notation for a Voltaic Cell

                           Why Does a Voltaic Cell Work?

                    Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell

                           Standard Cell Potentials

                           Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

                    Free Energy and Electrical Work

                           Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant

                           The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential

                           Changes in Potential During Cell Operation

                           Concentration Cells

                    Electrochemical Processes in Batteries

                           Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries

                           Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries

                           Fuel Cells

                    Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry

                           The Corrosion of Iron

                           Protecting Against the Corrosion of Iron

                    Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous Reactions

                           Construction and Operation of an Electrolytic Cell

                           Predicting the Products of Electrolysis

                           The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis: The Relation Between Amounts of Charge and Product

                           Chemical Connections to Biological Energetics: Cellular Electrochemistry and the Production of ATP

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             The Elements in Nature and Industry

                    How the Elements Occur in Nature

                           Earth's Structure and the Abundance of the Elements

                           Sources of the Elements

                    The Cycling of Elements Through the Environment

                           The Carbon Cycle

                           The Nitrogen Cycle

                           The Phosphorus Cycle

                    Metallurgy: Extracting a Metal from Its Ore

                           Pretreating the Ore

                           Converting Mineral to Element

                           Refining and Alloying the Element

                    Tapping the Crust: Isolation and Uses of the Elements

                           Producing the Alkali Metals: Sodium and Potassium

                           The Indispensable Three: Iron, Copper, and Aluminum

                           Mining the Sea: Magnesium and Bromine

                           The Many Sources and Uses of Hydrogen

                    Chemical Manufacturing: Two Case Studies

                           Sulfuric Acid, the Most Important Chemical

                           The Chlor-Alkali Process

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds

                    Properties of the Transition Elements

                           Electron Configurations of the Transition Metals and Their Ions

                           Atomic and Physical Properties of the Transition Elements

                           Chemical Properties of the Transition Metals

                    The Inner Transition Elements

                           The Lanthanides

                           The Actinides

                    Highlights of Selected Transition Metals

                           Chromium

                           Manganese

                           Silver

                           Mercury

                    Coordination Compounds

                           Complex Ions: Coordination Numbers, Geometries, and Ligands

                           Formulas and Names of Coordination Compounds

                           A Historical Perspective Alfred Werner and Coordination Theory

                           Isomerism in Coordination Compounds

                    Theoretical Basis for the Bonding and Properties of Complexes

                           Application of Valence Bond Theory to Complex Ions

                           Crystal Field Theory

                           Chapter Perspective

                           Chemical Connections to Nutritional Science: Transition Metals as Essential Dietary Trace Elements

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

             Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications

                    Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability

                           The Components of the Nucleus: Terms and Notation

                           The Discovery of Radioactivity and the Types of Emissions

                           Types of Radioactive Decay; Balancing Nuclear Equations

                           Nuclear Stability and the Mode of Decay

                    The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

                           The Rate of Radioactive Decay

                           Tools of the Laboratory: Counters for the Detection of Radioactive Emissions

                           Radioisotopic Dating

                    Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei

                           Early Transmutation Experiments; Discovery of the Neutron

                           Particle Accelerators and the Transuranium Elements

                    The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter

                           The Effects of Radioactive Emissions: Excitation and Ionization

                           Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Living Matter

                    Applications of Radioisotopes

                           Radioactive Tracers: Applications of Nonionizing Radiation

                           Applications of Ionizing Radiation

                    The Interconversion of Mass and Energy

                           The Mass Defect

                           Nuclear Binding Energy

                    Applications of Fission and Fusion

                           The Process of Nuclear Fission

                           The Promise of Nuclear Fusion

                           Chemical Connections to Cosmology: Origin of the Elements in the Stars

                           Chapter Perspective

                           For Review and Reference

                           Problems

Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry

Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances at 298 K

Appendix C Equilibrium Constants at 298 K

Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials at 298 K

Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems

Glossary

Credits

Index