Green Energetic Materials

[BOOK DESCRIPTION]

This comprehensive book presents a detailed account of research and recent developments in the field of green energetic materials, including pyrotechnics, explosives and propellants. This area is attracting increasing interest in the community as it undergoes a transition from using traditional processes, to more environmentally-friendly procedures. The book covers the entire line of research from the initial theoretical modelling and design of new materials, to the development of sustainable manufacturing processes. It also addresses materials that have already reached the production line, as well as considering future developments in this evolving field.

[TABLE OF CONTENTS]

List of Contributors                               ix
Preface                                            xi
1 Introduction to Green Energetic Materials        1  (14)
          Tore Brinck
    1.1 Introduction                               1  (1)
    1.2 Green Chemistry and Energetic Materials    2  (3)
    1.3 Green Propellants in Civil Space Travel    5  (5)
      1.3.1 Green Oxidizers to Replace Ammonium    6  (2)
      Perchlorate
      1.3.2 Green Liquid Propellants to Replace    8  (2)
      Hydrazine
      1.3.3 Electric Propulsion                    10 (1)
    1.4 Conclusions                                10 (1)
    References                                     11 (4)
2 Theoretical Design of Green Energetic            15 (30)
Materials: Predicting Stability, Detection,
Synthesis and Performance
          Tore Brinck
          Martin Rahm
    2.1 Introduction                               15 (2)
    2.2 Computational Methods                      17 (3)
    2.3 Green Propellant Components                20 (18)
      2.3.1 Trinitramide                           20 (4)
      2.3.2 Energetic Anions Rich in Oxygen and    24 (3)
      Nitrogen
      2.3.3 The Pentazolate Anion and its          27 (6)
      Oxy-Derivatives
      2.3.4 Tetrahedral N4                         33 (5)
    2.4 Conclusions                                38 (1)
    References                                     39 (6)
3 Some Perspectives on Sensitivity to              45 (18)
Initiation of Detonation
          Peter Politzer
          Jane S. Murray
    3.1 Energetic Materials and Green Chemistry    45 (1)
    3.2 Sensitivity: Some Background               46 (1)
    3.3 Sensitivity Relationships                  47 (1)
    3.4 Sensitivity: Some Relevant Factors         48 (8)
      3.4.1 Amino Substituents                     48 (1)
      3.4.2 Layered (Graphite-Like) Crystal        49 (1)
      Lattice
      3.4.3 Free Space in the Crystal Lattice      50 (1)
      3.4.4 Weak Trigger Bonds                     50 (1)
      3.4.5 Molecular Electrostatic Potentials     51 (5)
    3.5 Summary                                    56 (1)
    Acknowledgments                                56 (1)
    References                                     57 (6)
4 Advances Toward the Development of "Green"       63 (40)
Pyrotechnics
          Jesse J. Sabatini
    4.1 Introduction                               63 (2)
    4.2 The Foundation of "Green" Pyrotechnics     65 (2)
    4.3 Development of Perchlorate-Free            67 (8)
    Pyrotechnics
      4.3.1 Perchlorate-Free Illuminating          67 (5)
      Pyrotechnics
      4.3.2 Perchlorate-Free Simulators            72 (3)
    4.4 Removal of Heavy Metals from               75 (8)
    Pyrotechnic Formulations
      4.4.1 Barium-Free Green-Light Emitting       76 (2)
      Illuminants
      4.4.2 Barium-Free Incendiary Compositions    78 (2)
      4.4.3 Lead-Free Pyrotechnic Compositions     80 (2)
      4.4.4 Chromium-Free Pyrotechnic              82 (1)
      Compositions
    4.5 Removal of Chlorinated Organic             83 (1)
    Compounds from Pyrotechnic Formulations
      4.5.1 Chlorine-Free Illuminating             83 (1)
      Compositions
    4.6 Environmentally Friendly Smoke             84 (9)
    Compositions
      4.6.1 Environmentally Friendly Colored       84 (4)
      Smoke Compositions
      4.6.2 Environmentally Friendly White         88 (5)
      Smoke Compositions
    4.7 Conclusions                                93 (1)
    Acknowledgments                                94 (1)
    Abbreviations                                  95 (2)
    References                                     97 (6)
5 Green Primary Explosives                         103(30)
          Karl D. Oyler
    5.1 Introduction                               103(7)
      5.1.1 What is a Primary Explosive?           104(3)
      5.1.2 The Case for Green Primary             107(1)
      Explosives
      5.1.3 Legacy Primary Explosives              108(2)
    5.2 Green Primary Explosive Candidates         110(15)
      5.2.1 Inorganic Compounds                    111(5)
      5.2.2 Organic-Based Compounds                116(9)
    5.3 Conclusions                                125(1)
    Acknowledgments                                126(1)
    References                                     126(7)
6 Energetic Tetrazole N-oxides                     133(46)
          Thomas M. Klap?tke
          J?rg Stierstorfer
    6.1 Introduction                               133(1)
    6.2 Rationale for the Investigation of         133(3)
    Tetrazole N-oxides
    6.3 Synthetic Strategies for the Formation     136(3)
    of Tetrazole N-oxides
      6.3.1 HOF-CH3CN                              136(1)
      6.3.2 Oxoneｮ                                 137(1)
      6.3.3 CF3COOH/H202                           138(1)
      6.3.4 Cyclization of Azido-Oximes            139(1)
    6.4 Recent Examples of Energetic Tetrazole     139(34)
    N-oxides
      6.4.1 Tetrazole N-oxides                     140(10)
      6.4.2 Bis(tetrazole-N-oxides)                150(14)
      6.4.3 5,5'-Azoxytetrazolates                 164(6)
      6.4.4 Bis(tetrazole)dihydrotetrazine and     170(3)
      Bis(tetrazole)tetrazine N-oxides
    6.5 Conclusion                                 173(1)
    Acknowledgments                                174(1)
    References                                     174(5)
7 Green Propellants Based on Dinitramide Salts:    179(26)
Mastering Stability and Chemical Compatibility
Issues
          Martin Rahm
          Tore Brinck
    7.1 The Promises and Problems of               179(2)
    Dinitramide Salts
    7.2 Understanding Dinitramide Decomposition    181(8)
      7.2.1 The Dinitramide Anion                  182(2)
      7.2.2 Dinitraminic Acid                      184(1)
      7.2.3 Dinitramide Salts                      185(4)
    7.3 Vibrational Sum-Frequency Spectroscopy     189(3)
    of ADN and KDN
    7.4 Anomalous Solid-State Decomposition        192(2)
    7.5 Dinitramide Chemistry                      194(4)
      7.5.1 Compatibility and Reactivity of ADN    194(2)
      7.5.2 Dinitramides in Synthesis              196(2)
    7.6 Dinitramide Stabilization                  198(2)
    7.7 Conclusions                                200(1)
    References                                     201(4)
8 Binder Materials for Green Propellants           205(30)
          Carina Elds舩er
          Eva Malmstr?m
    8.1 Binder Properties                          208(2)
    8.2 Inert Polymers for Binders                 210(5)
      8.2.1 Polybutadiene                          210(2)
      8.2.2 Polyethers                             212(1)
      8.2.3 Polyesters and Polycarbonates          213(2)
    8.3 Energetic Polymers                         215(8)
      8.3.1 Nitrocellulose                         215(1)
      8.3.2 Poly(glycidyl azide)                   216(4)
      8.3.3                                        220(1)
      Poly(3-nitratomethyl-3-methyloxetane)
      8.3.4 Poly(glycidyl nitrate)                 221(1)
      8.3.5 Poly[3,3-bis(azidomethyl)oxetane]      222(1)
    8.4 Energetic Plasticisers                     223(1)
    8.5 Outlook for Design of New Green Binder     223(3)
    Systems
      8.5.1 Architecture of the Binder Polymer     224(1)
      8.5.2 Chemical Composition and               224(2)
      Crosslinking Chemistries
    References                                     226(9)
9 The Development of Environmentally               235(24)
Sustainable Manufacturing Technologies for
Energetic Materials
          David E. Chavez
    9.1 Introduction                               235(1)
    9.2 Explosives                                 236(10)
      9.2.1 Sustainable Manufacturing of           236(4)
      Explosives
      9.2.2 Environmentally Friendly Materials     240(4)
      for Initiation
      9.2.3 Synthesis of Explosive Precursors      244(2)
    9.3 Pyrotechnics                               246(3)
      9.3.1 Commercial Pyrotechnics                246(2)
      Manufacturing
      9.3.2 Military Pyrotechnics                  248(1)
    9.4 Propellants                                249(4)
      9.4.1 The "Green Missile" Program            249(1)
      9.4.2 Other Rocket Propellant Efforts        250(1)
      9.4.3 Gun Propellants                        251(2)
    9.5 Formulation                                253(1)
    9.6 Conclusions                                254(1)
    Acknowledgments                                254(1)
    Abbreviations and Acronyms                     255(1)
    References                                     256(3)
10 Electrochemical Methods for Synthesis of        259(22)
Energetic Materials and Remediation of Waste
Water
          Lynne Wallace
    10.1 Introduction                              259(1)
    10.2 Practical Aspects                         260(2)
    10.3 Electrosynthesis                          262(4)
      10.3.1 Electrosynthesis of EM and EM         262(3)
      Precursors
      10.3.2 Electrosynthesis of Useful Reagents   265(1)
    10.4 Electrochemical Remediation               266(7)
      10.4.1 Direct Electrolysis                   267(2)
      10.4.2 Indirect Electrolytic Methods         269(3)
      10.4.3 Electrokinetic Remediation of Soils   272(1)
      10.4.4 Electrodialysis                       273(1)
    10.5 Current Developments and Future           273(2)
    Directions
    References                                     275(6)
Index                                              281